Green Biomanufacturing of Indigo: Enzymatic and Fermentation Routes-advances and Challenges

doi:10.19586/j.2095-2341.2025.0182

Current Biotechnology ›› 2026, Vol. 16 ›› Issue (3): 535-548.DOI: 10.19586/j.2095-2341.2025.0182

• Special Forum on Microbial Cell Factory • Previous Articles Next Articles

Green Biomanufacturing of Indigo: Enzymatic and Fermentation Routes-advances and Challenges

Zhihao LU(), Yonghui ZHANG, Zewang GUO, Jun CHEN, Xiaoyan ZHUANG()

College of Ocean Food and Biological Engineering，Jimei University，Fujian Xiamen 361021，China

Received:2025-12-16 Accepted:2026-01-21 Online:2026-05-25 Published:2026-07-14
Contact: Xiaoyan ZHUANG

Abstract

Abstract:

Indigo， a historically significant and widely used blue pigment， faces challenges in its traditional production， such as low extraction efficiency from plants and substantial pollution from chemical synthesis. These limitations have propelled the green biomanufacturing of indigo. Currently， enzymatic strategies mainly focus on the discovery and engineering of flavin-containing monooxygenases and cytochrome P450 monooxygenases， with efforts directed toward improving catalytic efficiency through directed evolution and rational design. Meanwhile， fermentation methods emphasize the use of wild-type or genetically engineered microbial strains， coupled with metabolic engineering and fermentation process optimization to enhance yield. This paper systematically outlined the key enzymes， microbial hosts， engineering strategies， and optimization techniques associated with both routes. It also discussed major challenges hindering industrial application， including low productivity and insufficient operational stability. The review aims to provide theoretical insights and technical support for the green and efficient biomanufacturing of indigo， thereby facilitating its sustainable development and application.

Key words: indigo, pigment, P450 monooxygenase, flavin-containing monooxygenase, green manufacturing

CLC Number:

Q815

Zhihao LU, Yonghui ZHANG, Zewang GUO, Jun CHEN, Xiaoyan ZHUANG. Green Biomanufacturing of Indigo: Enzymatic and Fermentation Routes-advances and Challenges[J]. Current Biotechnology, 2026, 16(3): 535-548.

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Figures/Tables 11

References 72

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FMO来源	表达载体	靛蓝产量/(mg·L^-1)	参考文献
噬甲基菌（Methylophaga sp.）	pBlue scriptSK(+)	160	[42]
嗜硫胺噬甲基菌（Methylophaga aminisulfidivorans）	pBlue 1.7	920	[43]
棒状杆菌（Corynebacterium glutamicum）	pMAL-c2x	685	[45]
酶蓼蓝（Polygonum tinctorium）	pET19b	30	[46]

FMO来源	表达载体	靛蓝产量/(mg·L^-1)	参考文献
噬甲基菌（Methylophaga sp.）	pBlue scriptSK(+)	160	[42]
嗜硫胺噬甲基菌（Methylophaga aminisulfidivorans）	pBlue 1.7	920	[43]
棒状杆菌（Corynebacterium glutamicum）	pMAL-c2x	685	[45]
酶蓼蓝（Polygonum tinctorium）	pET19b	30	[46]

FMO来源	改造位点	改造后活性	参考文献
噬甲基菌（Methylophaga sp. SK1）	F170、A210和T326	K_m=0.035 mmol·L^-1， k_cat=0.61 s^-1	[47]
棒状杆菌（Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC13032）	M185L/V402A（双点突变，位于底物通道与辅酶结合区）	K_m=0.66 mmol·L^-1， k_cat=0.4 s^-1	[48]
嗜硫胺噬甲基菌（Methylophaga aminosulfidivorans）	K223R/D317S	K_m=0.55 mmol·L^-1， k_cat=0.79 s^-1	[50]

FMO来源	改造位点	改造后活性	参考文献
噬甲基菌（Methylophaga sp. SK1）	F170、A210和T326	K_m=0.035 mmol·L^-1， k_cat=0.61 s^-1	[47]
棒状杆菌（Corynebacterium glutamicum ATCC13032）	M185L/V402A（双点突变，位于底物通道与辅酶结合区）	K_m=0.66 mmol·L^-1， k_cat=0.4 s^-1	[48]
嗜硫胺噬甲基菌（Methylophaga aminosulfidivorans）	K223R/D317S	K_m=0.55 mmol·L^-1， k_cat=0.79 s^-1	[50]

P450来源	定向进化突变位点	最后活性（k_cat/K_m）	参考文献
芽孢杆菌（Bacillus megaterium）	F87V/L188Q/A74G（三突变）	1 365 L·mol^-1·s^-1	[55]
芽孢杆菌（Bacillus megaterium）	E435T	577 L·mmol^-1·min^-1	[56]
芽孢杆菌（Bacillus megaterium）	F87G/T268A	1 388 L·mmol^-1·min^-1	[57]

Green Biomanufacturing of Indigo: Enzymatic and Fermentation Routes-advances and Challenges

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P450来源	改造位点	最后活性（k_cat/K_m）	参考文献
芽孢杆菌（Bacillus megaterium P450 BM3）	D168位点进行定点饱和突变	278 L·mmol^-1·min^-1	[60]
芽孢杆菌（Bacillus megaterium P450 BM3）	以三突变体A74G/F87V/L188Q为亲本，再叠加定点突变D168L与E435T	16.37 L·mmol^-1·min^-1	[61]
链霉菌SC0581Streptomyces sp. SC0581	单点突变库（21个）以及组合突变体	43.7 U·mg^-1	[59]

菌种来源	生产方式	产量/（mg·L^-1）	参考文献
大肠杆菌（Escherichia coli HB101）	利用萘作为唯一的碳源	25	[28]
不动杆菌属（Acinetobacter sp. ST-550）	采用二苯甲烷-水两相体系	292	[64]
肠杆菌属（Enterobacter sp.）	利用萘作为唯一碳源生长，萘同时作为诱导物，激活菌体内的萘双加氧酶表达	68.1	[66]

菌种来源	基因改造方式	靛蓝产量	参考文献
嗜硫胺噬甲基菌（Methylophaga aminisulfidivorans）	强化色氨酸摄取（“入口”改造）	1 492 mg·L^-1	[67]
大肠杆菌（Escherichia coli）	敲除竞争支路	188.9 mg·L^-1	[69]
噬甲基菌（Methylophaga）	trpR、tnaB、mtr、ptsG竞争途径基因敲除	3.9 g·L^-1	[13]

[1]	YANG Sanwei1§, ZHAO Jiajia1§, QIAO Ling1, ZHENG Xingwei1, LU Yanzhen2, LI Liujun2, ZHANG Jiancheng1*. Study on Extraction Process, Antioxidant Activity and Application in Hair Dyeing of Purple Pigment from Wheat [J]. Curr. Biotech., 2018, 8(4): 324-329.
[2]	YU Yan-qin, DU Jing-qi, ZHAO Jun, YANG Wei-min*. Physicochemical Properties of Jujube Fruit Peel Red Pigment and it's Application in Food Additives [J]. Curr. Biotech., 2014, 4(2): 129-134.
[3]	LI Liang-qiu, YANG Song-zhen, ZHU Hong-hui*. Identification and Phylogenetic Analysis of a Streptomycete Strain 18-A-5 with Blue Diffusible Pigment [J]. journal1, 2012, 2(5): 349-353.
[4]	ZHANG Cheng-cheng, WU Yan-min, TANG Yi-xiong*. Progress on Biosynthetic Pathway of Gossypol and its Derivatives [J]. journal1, 2011, 1(3): 165-171.